It is widely accepted that through a process of adaptation cells adjust their sensitivity in accordance with prevailing stimulus conditions. However, in two recent studies exploring adaptation in the rodent inferior colliculus and somatosensory cortex, neurons did not adapt towards global mean, but rather became most sensitive to inputs that were located towards the edge of the stimulus distribution with greater intensity than the mean. We re-examined electrophysiological data from the somatosensory study with the purpose of exploring the underlying encoding strategies. We found that neural gain tended to decrease as stimulus variance increased. Following adaptation to changes in global mean, neuronal output was scaled such that the relationship between firing rate and local, rather than global, differences in stimulus intensity was maintained. The majority of cells responded to large, positive deviations in stimulus amplitude; with a small number responding to both positive and negative changes in stimulus intensity. Adaptation to global mean was replicated in a model neuron by incorporating both spike-rate adaptation and tonic-inhibition, which increased in proportion to stimulus mean. Adaptation to stimulus variance was replicated by approximating the output of a population of neurons adapted to global mean and using it to drive a layer of recurrently connected depressing synapses. Within the barrel cortex, adaptation ensures that neurons are able to encode both overall levels of variance and large deviations in the input. This is achieved through a combination of gain modulation and a shift in sensitivity to intensity levels that are greater than the mean.

It is widely accepted that through a process of adaptation cells adjust their sensitivity in accordance with prevailing stimulus conditions. However, in two recent studies exploring adaptation in the rodent inferior colliculus and somatosensory cortex, neurons did not adapt towards global mean, but rather became most sensitive to inputs that were located towards the edge of the stimulus distribution with greater intensity than the mean. We re-examined electrophysiological data from the somatosensory study with the purpose of exploring the underlying encoding strategies. We found that neural gain tended to decrease as stimulus variance increased. Following adaptation to changes in global mean, neuronal output was scaled such that the relationship between firing rate and local, rather than global, differences in stimulus intensity was maintained. The majority of cells responded to large, positive deviations in stimulus amplitude; with a small number responding to both positive and negative changes in stimulus intensity. Adaptation to global mean was replicated in a model neuron by incorporating both spike-rate adaptation and tonic-inhibition, which increased in proportion to stimulus mean. Adaptation to stimulus variance was replicated by approximating the output of a population of neurons adapted to global mean and using it to drive a layer of recurrently connected depressing synapses. Within the barrel cortex, adaptation ensures that neurons are able to encode both overall levels of variance and large deviations in the input. This is achieved through a combination of gain modulation and a shift in sensitivity to intensity levels that are greater than the mean.

INTRODUCTION: Numerous supplements containing conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) are presently being promoted for body weight reduction. The aim of this systematic review is to evaluate the evidence for or against the long-term efficacy of CLA. METHODS: Electronic searches were conducted to identify relevant randomized clinical trials (RCTs). No restrictions in age, time, or language were imposed. Studies had to be at least 6 months in duration. Three reviewers independently determined the eligibility of studies. Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed the reporting quality of all RCTs. RESULTS: Fifteen RCTs were identified, and seven were included. Four of the included RCTs had serious flaws in the reporting of their methodology. A meta-analysis revealed a statistically significant difference in weight loss favouring CLA over placebo (mean difference: -0.70 kg; 95% confidence interval: -1.09, -0.32). Our meta-analysis also revealed a small significant difference in fat loss favouring CLA over placebo (MD: -1.33 kg; 95% CI: -1.79, -0.86; I (2) = 54%). The magnitude of these effects is small, and the clinical relevance is uncertain. Adverse events included constipation, diarrhea, and soft stools. CONCLUSION: the evidence from RCTs does not convincingly show that CLA intake generates any clinically relevant effects on body composition on the long term.

Numerous herbal supplements are presently marketed as weight-loss aids, but the efficacy of most is not proven. One such supplement is the extract of Citrus aurantium (bitter orange). The objective of this systematic review is to critically evaluate the evidence of efficacy for C. aurantium and weight management. Electronic databases, conference proceedings and pertinent journals were searched for relevant RCTs. Bibliographies and our departmental files were searched also. No restrictions on date or language of publication, age of participants or duration of treatment were imposed. Two reviewers independently determined the eligibility of studies, extracted data and evaluated the methodological quality of included studies. Seven studies were identified, of which four met the inclusion criteria. All RCTs had major methodological flaws. Two RCTs reported a marginal to statistically significant reduction in body weight and body fat in participants treated with C. aurantium-containing supplements, when compared to placebo. One trial reported a statistically significant reduction in body fat only, while the other reported a statistically significant increase in body weight. Adverse events included anxiety, elevated heart rate and musculoskeletal complaints. The evidence of efficacy for C. aurantium and weight management is contradictory and methodologically weak. Until more rigorous RCTs emerge, C. aurantium cannot be recommended as a treatment for weight loss. © 2011 the Authors.

TEST an Arts Council of Wales and AHRC funded practice through research performance examining intercultural and post-dramatic aesthetics. To see production images, reviews, etc. please visit www.phillipzarrilli.com (TOLD BY THE WIND). A complete video of the production, and interviews with the artists and consultants are available for distribution from THE LLANARTH GROUP or the Department of Drama, along with reviews on the Drama Department web-site and by visiting www.phillipzarrilli.com. Two major essays as chapters in books (see Notes below) have been published in support of the practice-led research. One uses the performance to examine the concept/phenomenon of 'presence' and the second examines the issues of 'altered consciousness' in performance. The performance score/script is being. prepared for submission to Asian Theatre Journal for consideration for publication.